Eskimo Culture:
Faunal
remains indicate that the people of Point Hope relied on both marine
and terrestrial resources, which include but are not limited to seals,
polar bears, walrus, whales, caribou, fish, and birds (Anderson 1994;
Dumond 1987). Keenleyside (1998) notes that Eskimos are predisposed
to a variety of zoonotic disease due to prolonged and close contact
with animals and their waste, not to mention eating raw or undercooked
meat on a fairly regular basis. According to Keenleyside (1998) after
consumption it was customary to wear the pelts of these animals, which
easily could have contributed to the spread of diseases.
Despite an abundance of marine resources it is not unheard of for a group of Eskimos to undergo periods of starvation (Hilton, personal communication, 2006). According to Keenleyside (1998) this could lead to vitamin and iron deficiencies which increase their susceptibility to infectious diseases like tuberculosis.
These coastal population used both permanent settlements and seasonal encampments. During the winter subterranean earthen dwellings would provide much needed warmth and shelter from the arctic weather. However, these permanent winter houses were also smoky, filled with refuse, and poorly ventilated (Keenleyside 1998). Unfortunately, this creates the perfect environment for disease causing bacteria to thrive.
Large
sedentary settlements, like the ones used during the winter months,
favor the selection of the respiratory form of tuberculosis, (Prat
& Mendonca de Souza, 2002). These houses tended to be small, single
room dwellings created of sod, driftwood and bone (Anderson 1994;
Dumond 1987). According to Burch and Spencer, as cited by Keenleyside
(1998), an average of eight individuals could reside within one house.
Such crowded living conditions would undoubtedly influence the spread
of TB and other such infectious diseases. In fact, Keenleyside explains
that according to Saunders et al., Iroquoians long houses prior to
European contact were also crammed full to the brim, and consequently,
could possibly explain the higher incidence of TB and leprosy in these
individuals as opposed to those who lived in single family dwellings.
Similarly, she goes on to explain that according to Garcia-Frias,
Allison et al., and Soriano, the Inca, who suffered from tuberculosis
as well, were known to have lived in small (5-6 m large), badly ventilated,
dark houses.
Such moderately sized semi-subterranean houses are seen at Point Hope. Although this doesn’t explain where the disease came from initially, it does help shed light on the reasons for it's dispersal among the community there.
According to Cook (1967) and Sarychev (1807), as sited by Keenleyside, garbage and human waste was deposited in the middle of these dwellings. Clearly, in conjunction with low quality of ventilation, and uncomfortably warm temperatures, this provided the perfect atmosphere for the spread of harmful bacteria and/or viruses. In regards to the Ipiutak, Rainey (1941) reports that during his excavation of Point Hope he found no evidence of extensive trash middens strewn about the site. Instead, upon further investigation of the houses it was there that he discovered refuse scattered all about the floor.
Alaska is located in the arctic circle where they experience twenty-four hours of sunlight beginning at 12:50 p.m. on November 18. Amazingly, the sun dips below the horizon and is not seen again until 11:51 a.m. on January 24 (http://enri.uaa.alaska.edu/ascc/nwss/barrow.html). Prat and Mendonca de Souza (2003) go on to explain that, according to Fink, poor exposure to sunlight, which is clearly a factor of arctic living, promotes the spread of tuberculosis.
Well before European contact the coastal peoples of Alaska had an organized and expansive trade network in place (Keenleyside 1998). They were also engaged in conflict with Eskimos further inland. These networks of trade made it possible to transmit disease from one group to another. Warfare also placed individuals at a greater risk of personal injury which could result in an infection, ultimately, making them more vulnerable to diseases (Keenleyside 1998).
One hypothesis, noted by Fortuine (2005), and proposed by Stuart, states that the harsh climate of the arctic made the transmission of disease unlikely. Similarly, Fortuine (2005) cites Black as having suggested that the cold weather acted as a, “germ filter.” If in fact this theory were true it would mean that the Native American populations didn’t encounter diseases until the arrival of Europeans. Fortuine (2005) however, has proved that prehistoric Eskimo populations did in fact suffer from disease by analyzing historical narratives, and paleopathological data. According to Prat and Mendonca de Souza (2003) transmission and establishment of TB in the New World were, “favored by cultural and life-style changes such as sendentarization, crowding, undernutrition, use of dark and insulated houses, and by the frequency of interpersonal contacts, which, as discussed above are all characteristics of prehistoric Eskimo populations.
Movie: Preparation of Raw Meat